Department of History and Philosophy, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, United States.
Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States.
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.
丹尼尔·卡尼曼（Daniel Kahneman）并不是第一个提出注意力和努力紧密相关的人，但是他1973年的著作《注意力和努力》（Attention and Effort）声称可以通过努力来识别注意力，这使这种联系成为认知科学的一种研究范式。从那时起，这种范式就很少受到质疑，并且似乎已经设定了研究议程，以便能够自我强化。在本文中，我们回顾了卡尼曼的论点，以了解其优点和缺点。本书并未明确定义努力的中心概念，因此我们从卡尼曼关于努力的观点出发，构造出最安全的推论：认知，客观，新陈代谢支出，这就是注意力。继续，我们从卡尼曼 的论点是，注意力集中必须是自主神经系统在交感神经控制中的特例，这也是大脑代谢活动的增加，已经超过了阈值。然后，我们将这种努力的概念与卡尼曼著作中的证据以及较新的证据进行了权衡，发现它不能保证可以将注意力等同于努力。为了支持另一种观点，我们简要回顾了关于注意力和努力的行为，生理学和神经科学方面的各种研究，包括冥想和LC-NE系统研究，我们发现了以下证据：（1）注意似乎是与代谢资源本身的利用不相关，而是与自适应增益调制形式的代谢资源的准备有关。这是在同情的支配下发生的，可以很费力地经历。（2）在副交感神经的主导下也可能会引起注意力，在这种情况下，注意力很容易出现。
Daniel Kahneman was not the first to suggest that attention and effort are closely associated, but his 1973 book Attention and Effort, which claimed that attention can be identified with effort, cemented the association as a research paradigm in the cognitive sciences. Since then, the paradigm has rarely been questioned and appears to have set the research agenda so that it is self-reinforcing. In this article, we retrace Kahneman's argument to understand its strengths and weaknesses. The central notion of effort is not clearly defined in the book, so we proceed by constructing the most secure inferences we can from Kahneman's argument regarding effort: it is cognitive, objective, metabolic expenditure, and it is attention. Continuing, we find from Kahneman's argument that effort-attention must be a special case of sympathetic dominance of the autonomic nervous system that is also an increase in metabolic activity in the brain that has crossed a threshold of magnitude. We then weigh this conception of effort against evidence in Kahneman's book and against more recent evidence, finding that it does not warrant the conclusion that effort can be equated with attention. In support of an alternative perspective, we briefly review diverse studies of behavior, physiology, and neuroscience on attention and effort, including meditation and studies of the LC-NE system, where we find evidence for the following: (1) Attention seems to be associated not with the utilization of metabolic resources per se but with the readying of metabolic resources in the form of adaptive gain modulation. This occurs under sympathetic dominance and can be experienced as effortful. (2) Attention can also occur under parasympathetic dominance, in which case it is likely to be experienced as effortless.
